Students of color are at greater risk for reading difficulties – even in kindergarten
A recent study published in the *Journal of School Psychology* highlights a troubling trend in early literacy among young students in the United States, revealing that Black, Hispanic, and Native American kindergartners are significantly more likely to struggle with reading than their white and Asian peers. The research, which analyzed data from the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics collected between 2010 and 2016, found that approximately 15% of these minority students scored in the lowest 10% of reading assessments focused on essential skills like letter recognition and vocabulary. In contrast, only 6% of white and 8% of Asian kindergartners fell into this category. The gap continues to widen as students progress; by fifth grade, 18% of Black, Hispanic, and Native American students are still struggling, compared to just 5% of their white and Asian counterparts.
The study emphasizes the critical role of socioeconomic factors in shaping early reading abilities. It reveals that children from lower-income families or those with less-educated parents are at a heightened risk of developing reading difficulties. Additionally, kindergartners who exhibit challenges in foundational skills such as math, science, and general learning capabilities, including working memory, are more likely to experience ongoing reading struggles throughout elementary school. This early intervention is vital, as students who face reading challenges are more likely to encounter anxiety, depression, and even incarceration in adulthood. Alarmingly, many students of color who experience significant reading difficulties are often not identified as having learning disabilities, which can further exacerbate their challenges.
The findings of this research underscore the urgent need for targeted early reading interventions for at-risk students, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds. Strategies that enhance phonics, vocabulary, and reading fluency could be crucial in closing the achievement gap. Furthermore, the study highlights a gap in understanding how economic and educational policies can effectively mitigate these risks. While there is some evidence suggesting that financial support for struggling families may improve children’s reading outcomes, more comprehensive research is needed to explore the myriad factors influencing literacy development. By addressing these disparities early on, educators and policymakers can work towards ensuring that all students have the opportunity to succeed in reading and beyond.
The achievement gap for young readers is stark, even in kindergarten.
andresr/E+ via Getty Images
Black, Hispanic and Native American students are more likely than white or Asian students to struggle with reading – and that gap emerges early,
according to our new research
. During kindergarten, they are more likely to score in the lowest 10% on assessments measuring skills such as letter recognition, vocabulary and recognizing common sight words. Large racial and ethnic differences in the risks for reading difficulties continue as students move through elementary school – a pattern largely explained by family income and early academic skills.
Our study, published online in November 2025
in the Journal of School Psychology
, finds that about 15% of Black, Hispanic and Native American kindergartners score in the lowest 10% of reading scores, compared to 6% and 8% of white and Asian students, respectively. By fifth grade, 18%, 16% and 10% of Black, Hispanic and Native American students are struggling. The contrasting rate for white and Asian students is about 5%.
We analyzed data collected by the U.S. Department of Education’s
National Center for Education Statistics
from 2010-2016. This data includes direct academic assessments as well as surveys of the students and their parents, teachers and school administrators.
We used standard statistical methods to explore how a wide range of factors across homes and schools – measured during kindergarten – helped explain whether students later experienced reading difficulties. A key factor, according to our analysis, is the family’s socioeconomic status: a measure including household income and parental education levels and occupations.
Kindergartners who struggled with initial reading, math and science skills, as well as more general learning abilities such as
working memory
, were also at higher risk for reading difficulties throughout elementary school.
Why it matters
U.S. elementary students’ reading achievement
has been declining
in recent years. The gap between the highest- and lowest-scoring readers is increasing too.
Supporting these children is important. Students who wrestle with reading are more likely to later experience
anxiety and depression
. Adults with reading difficulties are also more likely
to be incarcerated
and unemployed
. In
one study
, for example, about half of Texas prisoners were poor readers.
Because our findings suggest Black, Hispanic and Native American students are
at higher risk for reading difficulties
by kindergarten, students from these groups may have greater needs for early reading interventions that provide extra help with phonics, vocabulary and reading fluency. Some of these students may also have unrecognized learning disabilities.
Yet students of color are less likely to be
identified with disabilities
,
including dyslexia
– even when the students are experiencing early and significant reading difficulties.
What still isn’t known
How economic and educational policies and practices can best help lower the risks of reading difficulties is poorly understood. There is
some evidence
that cash transfers to financially struggling families may increase children’s later reading achievement. Poverty is also associated with lower exposure to age-appropriate books and other
early literacy materials
and fewer opportunities to acquire a
larger vocabulary
.
Our longitudinal research adds to the very limited understanding of the early economic, environmental, cognitive, academic and behavioral factors that help shape elementary students’ reading abilities. Most other studies have focused on a single grade and examined a limited set of specific skills – such as
how children process sounds
– instead of multiple grades and a more general set of risk factors.
More
research is needed
to identify the full range of reasons why elementary students begin to struggle in reading and what can be done to best help them.
The
Research Brief
is a short take on interesting academic work.
Paul L. Morgan receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and the Institute of Education Sciences.
Eric Hengyu Hu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
